Spatial Hypertext (SH) has been a long-standing facet of research within the Hypertext field, yet active research is declining despite ongoing interest in the concept. Is this because the question of SH's nature is resolved, or because is needs re-contextualising? This paper summarises SH's history for today's post-Web researcher as well as current SH research, tools and SH's possible future.

Human-centered computing → Hypertext / hypermedia

Information systems → Collaborative and social computing systems and tools

spatial hypertext, hypertext, AI, XR, sense making, knowledge management, VIKI, VKB, AQUANET, premature formalisation, information triage, Storyspace, Tinderbox, Notecards

Spatial Hypertext (SH) has been a long-running theme in the Hypertext Conference. At HT'23, in 'Seven Hypertexts' 2, Sect. 4.3 it is noted as underexploited aspect of Hypertext work 3, Sect. 3.5. But looking at reference to DH within in the wider world, the picture looks a little different—see Figure 1. Why might this be?

The term 'Spatial Hypertext' was first coined by Marshall & Shipman in 1993 107, though the roots of SH stem from the late 1980s. The last major SH-centric research program was VKB 149 in 1999, with work on and research using VKB running on until c.2014. The core programs in the SH story are AQUANET, VIKI and VKB, all described in more detail below. However, understanding SH is more than just those three experiments.

Before exploring further, it is worth noting that most working-age people today (2025) left junior school after the Web's public debut (c.1993). Thus, for many readers of this paper, the Web's subset of hypertext features is likely their baseline understanding of the meaning of 'hypertext'—perspective is relevant.

Thus, 'Spatial Hypertext' was coined the same year the (World Wide) Web opened to the public, in 1993. VIKI 110 was launched a year later and was being evaluated at a time when research and public interest in hypertext was pivoting to the fast-growing Web. SH's roots actually stretch back further, to the late 1980s—so, pre-Web. Furthermore, from the published record, the inception of projects is often unclear. This is because papers tended to be written at the end of a research grant, or after it finished, making the narrative doubly retrospective and not always easy to follow. Another factor confusing in hindsight is the scale of content used. Systems in the late 1980s might have hundreds of nodes in a hypertext: those were large hypertexts in their time.

Very few of the systems described can be seen working today (or have video of their use), and early print reproduction of screen images was often poor. Indeed, of the three main SH experimental programs discussed here, only the last (VKB) can still be run (see Figure 2). Bernstein's paper at the SH1 Workshop[^1] asked 'Where Are The Hypertext Systems?' 22, p.1 pointing out that at HYPERTEXT'87 'With the exception of NLS/AUGMENT, the old, established systems were all younger than VIKI is today'. The passage of time means that few of today's (2025) hypertext researchers were 'in the room' when the early SH papers came out and given the over 30-year gap it is useful to re-seam together programs and their surrounding literature, before considering where SH stands today and its possible future.

[^1]: The first of four SH workshops held at the HT Conferences '01–'04: see 160.

1.1 So what then is 'Spatial' Hypertext?

What may be less clear in hindsight is how transgressive SH's seeming eschewal of links might have appeared back in the early 1990s. Ted Nelson's neologism of 'Hypertext' was of '. . . a body of written or pictorial material interconnected in such a complex way that it could not conveniently be presented or represented on paper.' 122, p.96. Those interconnections were what became termed 'links', and their visibility is something that Nelson himself has always stressed 125 [124, image p1/25].

The 1980s–90s were a time of rapid expansion of hypertext development and research. Pertinent for today's researcher was the fact that most systems then ran on single computers. PCs and workstations were taking over from earlier 'mainframe' computers: merely having a computer was getting easier. Display screens were expensive, physically small, and of low resolution. Colour screens were a rarity. Much of the displayed content was text, partly reflecting the immaturity of displaying image content and partly due to the perceived role of hypertext tools.

For linking, even the very act of traversing (a link) from one node to another was still novel and even confusing, with erstwhile fears of being 'lost in hyperspace' 51, 54 43, p.38. This was also reflected in Landow's consideration of the rhetoric of link-traversal departure and arrival 90. Oddly to today's eye, (hypertext) links were a thing of mystery and not the obvious means of navigation: should I follow this link, what might happen next?

Thus, links and their role (type) were very much to the fore 44, Fig. 8[43, Table 1], not least as there was often little in the way of a graphical overview of the system. The role of link types—an expression of the link's purpose[^6]—increased in 1983 with the arrival of Trigg's TEXNET[^7] 179 and Halascz's Notecards 68. Both these programs were created by staff of Systems Sciences Laboratory (SSL) at Xerox PARC[^8].

[^6]: This is explored by Nelson's link typologies in Literary Machines 124, pp.4/41–4/60 and in Conklin's hypertext survey 43, p.40 44, Sect. 5.2.

[^7]: This drew on his PhD work 173. His link type taxonomy is explained at 19.

[^8]: Xerox's Palo Alto Research Center, in Palo Alto, CA, USA.

Links serve a dual function[107]. Firstly, they give rhetorical structure to a hypertext's overall set of nodes. They offer a literal prompt for, an affordance of, traversal of the hypertext. This might involve following a pre-defined stored path, e.g. Memex's 'trails' 41, scripted documents 190, 191, or 'guided tours' 105, 174. Or, they might involve choice and intuition as in Intermedia 188 or Storyspace 78.

Building on top of Notecards, PARC's Intelligent System Lab built IDE[^9] 76, 129, 138. It added the notion of a graphical Knowledge Structure, allowing visualisation of the domain knowledge to be taught 138, p.209, Fig. 7.9. Within Notecards itself, some structuring of context was possible, primarily via Browser-type cards, and this was leveraged to give 'guided tours' of a hypertext 174. A parallel development was the 'tabletop' card. This allowed a number of cards—and their layout—to be saved, essentially a precursor to today's notion of a saved work space.

[^9]: The Instructional Design Environment.

Other approaches to hypertextual construction and traversal were being tried. Nanard & Nanard expanded the notion of typing further in their MacWeb 120, 121 system—even proposing typed anchors. DeRose, exploring the notion of the link 49, also derived a taxonomy of link types distinguishing intensional links from extensional links. The former follow from the internal structure and content of the nodes compared to the idiosyncratic definition of extensional links.

Taking a differing perspective of the whole, Stotts & Furuta were applying Petri net[^10] principles to the hypertext graph in their Trellis programs 62, 169 using places (notes) and transitions (links) to tease content apart from structure. Van Dyke Parunak's HyperSet 182, 183 explored Set theory as a means of exploring the graph. There was recognition that not all hypertexts were static in representation, so-called 'volatile' hypertexts 29. Fairchild's SemNet 56 looked at using a 3-dimensional view of the hypertext graph as a way of both exposing it to the user and avoiding some of the noise that a densely linked graph has in 2D. Outside the research laboratory, Apple's Hypercard was also following a card-based motif[4].

[^10]: Also known as a place/transition net or 'PT net'

Whilst hypertext traversal via single node-to-node links seemed the most tractable approach, the exact nature of implementing a hypertext was not set as the diverse examples above show. However, the link was a significant component of all these systems.

2.1 Experience of Notecards

Mindful of the 'tyranny of the link', PARC SSL's next hypertext experiment was 'AQUANET' (c.1990–92). It attempted to look at the 'knowledge structuring task' using spatial layout to explore and impart semantic meaning to emergent knowledge. It drew upon Germ[^12] 38, gIBIS 40, 45, 46, Notecards, and IDE. Conklin's gIBIS was also of note as it sought to visualise, as a graph, argumentation in business processes.

[^12]: (Graphical Entity Relational Modeling: also see 70.

A primary innovation, with regard to hypertext systems, was that the main display space was 'a large unpartitioned display space' 106, p.58, which was a departure from the multiple window (card) displays of the likes of Notecards or Hypercard. The broad aims were laid out at 104, p.264:

Specifying the elements and connection methods of the problem space.

Being able to model the knowledge structure.

For collaboration, regular updating: 'What You See Is What I Did' (WYSIWID).

Multiple views of the same (data) structure[^13] (citing QOC 96, and SIBYL 91).

Allow combinations of methodologies to structure knowledge (citing Streitz 171).

Allow discussion both about and through the structure, as in Conklin's 'going meta' 45, pp.148–9.

[^13]: q.v. NLS/Augments's viewspecs 55.

The structures offered aimed to support both the Dexter Hypertext Reference Model 69 and frame-based representation (per 33) describing nodes as 'basic objects' and links as relationships. Actual links, as were then the norm, were not included; the visualisation of the display space offering implicit (link) relationships instead. Though AQUANET is often seen as a proto-Spatial Hypertext, in terms of what it set out to do, it was far more structure-oriented than what was to follow. Although the map was free-form, the user was expected to insert objects chosen from a set of pre-defined objects. The freedom of user choice was more in the layout than in the type of object (though the user could define custom objects).

Indeed, it was observations of what had not worked as expected, as much as any success that set in train the notion of SH. It was a subsequent reflective paper 'Two Years Before the Mist' 101 that drew upon these user experiences.

3.1 Reflections on AQUANET (1992)

3.2 Spatial Hypertext takes its name (1993)

Introduced at ECHT'94, VIKI made use of the parser tested in the previous year's SH paper (see previous section) as well as other spatial parsing work at PARC 117, 139. Having established the concept of SH, VIKI deliberately set itself apart from the linking of earlier hypertext systems 110, Sect. 2, focusing on representing overall structure rather than navigation. Of note too is that section's discussion of browser-based systems (VIKI, Storyspace, AQUANET, MacWeb, Sepia 170, gIBIS) vs. document-based systems (WWWeb 11, HOS 157, OVAL 99 and PHIDAS). Whilst permissive and prescriptive linking systems can also expand their linking approach (e.g. Storyspace's Link Apprentice tool 14), it was felt that eventually the sheer number range of link types could make system navigation hard to use or visualise. The SH approach let the location and visual style indicate emergent structure. Not stated but implicit was that such an approach suited early-stage hypertexts still under construction, rather than a mature system where structure should have stabilised.

Learning from AQUANET, VIKI used three pivotal requirements: '(1) interaction must be informal; (2) users must have access to a variety of representational modes; (3) additional structure must be available on demand, either through the development of types from examples and prototypes, or through recognition of implicit structure.' 110, pp.15–16.

Rather than use predefined structures to help shape the layout of the hypertext, VIKI took the opposite approach. Now the users would lay everything out, and a parser would assist them by deriving structure. This fostered emergent structure and avoided premature formalisation: use of structure or abstraction in VIKI would always be done at the user's initiative.

To assist the user, three fundamental types of element were offered: objects, composites, and collections. Objects were the basic constructional blocks (lexia) and were semi-structured, allowing the user the choice as to how content was added to them. Composites would consist of two or more objects in a particular visual or spatial configuration. A collection was an arbitrary spatial arrangement of objects, composites, or other collections. A flexible system of object types was available to allow for consistent styling of groupings of similar elements. Visual nesting of elements, on the map but with an implicit hierarchy, was allowed. Following Boxer 50 and Pad 128, VIKI used a spatial navigation metaphor.

The parser, at the users invitation, could suggest new collections based on the detected layout of the selected elements. The assumption was that this would assist the user with generating empty structures for new content, as a productivity accelerator. Note that the parser was not creating the layout of items, but parsing it to suggest recognised and emerging structures. The parser also drew on Shipman's Hyper-Object Substrate (HOS)[^15] 141, 157.

[^15]: HOS included agents to examine text content included in the hypertext and recommend the addition of particular attribute/value tuples and inter-object relations.

Reflecting the newly available world Wide Web, VIKI could also link outwards to the Web to avoid internal replication of content already available (online) elsewhere. As there was an intention for group rather than individual use, 'note' objects were offered to enable meta-communication by group members indicating their intent in incremental formalisations made to the map.

Through this set of features, VIKI was able to test a more permissive SH environment that gave the user more agency in the organisation and styling of information. By not forcing a defined structure, elucidation could be imparted whilst still allowing some information to remain tacit 130. VIKI essentially validated the notion of SH as set out by the 1993 SH paper.

4.1 Building on VIKI's insights

Developed by Bolter, Joyce & Smith, Storyspace 35, 78 predates SH by almost a decade, having started development in 1984 and was first shown publicly in 1987 at the first Hypertext conference. Whilst SH was not on the minds of Storyspace's creators, there was an intent to give users a place to play and explore with the relation of their notes. The app offered an overall outline structure, whilst its map view allowed a per-outline-container view where the user could arrange their notes ('writing spaces'). Joyce noted:

'More particularly, [the structure editor] involved combining the relatively familiar and efficient hierarchical data structure known as the tree with the less familiar but more robust data structures known as networks or graphs' (Markle 81, p.13, via 87).

Differing from the link-less nature of systems like VIKI, Storyspace draws any links on the map (if needed). There is no parser controlling the layout, which is manually arranged by the user, although some placement assistance features are offered. Despite this, the map experience still fosters SH's sense of emergent structure and the serendipity of contingent positioning.

Joyce also described the notion of 'constructive' (creating) vs. 'exploratory' (reading) hypertext 79, pp.40–42[^16] 31. This is not touched on in the early SH papers, but their exploratory [sic] work chimes with the freedom of Joyce's constructive category. Storyspace's presentational duality of discrete tree and graph views echoes Smith's Writing Environment (WE) 162. Bernstein's 'Architecture for Volatile Hypertext' 29 also explores how Storyspace embraces the challenge of the impermanent structure when making constructive hypertexts.

[^16]: A reprint of the unavailable original 77.

VIKI's creators make reference to Storyspace—see 110, Sect. 2—but do not adjudge it to be an SH tool. Note though, with hindsight, that at that time VIKI was trying to prove the point of meaningful SH without any explicit links. By contrast, Storyspace's 'map view' combined a spatial layout of nodes (like an SH) whilst also showing any links between them. Whilst links were the necessary—and intentional—means of navigation the map still offered a perspective only later formalised as SH.

Building on experience from VIKI, at HYPERTEXT '01, Shipman and colleagues presented VKB 149 (also see 144, 147) as a visual workspace for collecting, organising, and sharing information. The design of VKB also incorporated experiences with information authoring and sharing from the Virtual Notebook System 145 and with information representation and formalisation from their previous HOS system 141, 158.

Whereas earlier SH systems had run on PARC's workstations—far more powerful than the PCs of their day, VKB ran under Windows OS on ordinary PCs[^17]. Significantly, SH had broken free of research-grade equipment and was now running on consumer-grade OS and hardware.

[^17]: VKB was written in Java and ran on Windows 98 & NT.

Whilst VIKI had already proved the basic case for SH, VKB identified further emergent SH issues 149, p.113:

the difficulty of interpreting changing visualizations

the visualization interfering with visual source information

the inability to express cross-space interrelations

the lack of means for expressing publishable information spaces

For all tht SH offered, the last item is of particular note and not really resolved by this last of the main SH experiments. Whilst SH is a powerful approach to information triage and initial structure, its 'flattened' state—notwithstanding nested elements—does not necessarily indicate the best approach to the linear narrative needed for most forms of publishing (output). Even digitally native documents still embrace the linearising constraints of paper, even though such documents may never actually be printed. This issue has been addressed, in part, by Tinderbox (see Section 7). The task of writing, as distinct from initial data input, is discussed in Section 4.2 of Shipman et al.'s 'Emergent Structure in Analytic Workspaces' 148.

A further innovation in VKB was its navigable history. Hypertext tools had long had a history list of nodes/objects selected or edited. A novelty in VKB was to allow the user, via a scrubber control, to move back to a particular past snapshot of the system, or watch the emergence of structure replayed snapshot by snapshot. That feature enabled SH users both to find a given state and to (re)view the emergence of structure in the SH. Additionally, links could be added to point to a particular saved snapshot of the SH, though it was noted that the benefits of the latter 71 had yet to be fully explored and established 143. The history scrubber also exposed the time axis of the document for the reader 95 147, pp.163-4. Kim & Shipman revisited this in a VKB v3 10, 86.

In VKB the 'Suggestion Manager' exposed the parser to the user. Invoking the feature results in a number of suggestions relating to the visual layout and styling of the SH, see 159, Fig. 1. The parser is not significantly altering the layout of the SH, but rather surfacing and enhancing apparent emergent structure. Importantly, as with AQUANET and VIKI, the human user controls the overall 'map' of the content of the SH.

To address the issue of SH map size vs. display size, VKB included a 'Miniature Space' navigation overview window that indicated the currently visible area of the whole SH map (used to investigate information triage in SH 9).

With VKB developed, Shipman's research group used it to investigate information triage 9, 85, 113, 127, 150. MASH (Multi-model Adaptive Spatial Hypermedia) 57, 60 saw experimental joining in of SH with Adaptive Hypertext, using VKB as the authoring environment. MASH debuted in conjunction with WARP 58, a web-browser-based dynamic SH presentation, again using VKB as the SH authoring component. Further work was also undertaken on improved spatial parsers for VKB/WARP 59. VITE 72–74 drew on VKB for a visualisation space for structured data (contrasting generally ad hoc input to SH). VKB itself iterated through three major versions over 15 years.

In Shipman's 'Seven Directions for Spatial Hypertext Research' 142, Direction #6 'Writing & Designing Spatial Hypertexts' acknowledges the creator and user are often the same (group of) people. For them, any ambiguity of presentation is offset by the user's ongoing familiarity with the work. Not so for the general reader. This is similar to the problem of creating 'publishable' SH information spaces.

Having taken over development of Storyspace in 1990, and with the experience of Hypergate 13, 14, 32 and Web Squirrel 16, 17, in 2001 Eastgate created Tinderbox 23, 24—incidentally contemporaneous to VKB. Reflecting the interim arrival of the Web and an erstwhile interest in blogging, Tinderbox—as compared to Storyspace—moved from being a self-contained hypertext app[^18] to a general 'toolbox for notes', albeit with the same hypertextual core. Storyspace's views, most notably the map view, were retained and since enhanced with further views[^19] 27, 30. The design allows the user multiple concurrent views, of the same underlying data[^20], to visualise their notes' relationships. Tinderbox has also continued to enhance the visual affordances of the map view 25, 30.

[^18]: By comparison, Storyspace is both the authoring app and the reading tool, though a stand-alone reader app was offered.

[^19]: Currently, there are 10 discrete view types.

[^20]: q.v. NLS/Augments's viewspecs 55.

Tinderbox's flexible support for export echoes a need expressed in the conclusions of Trigg's survey of Notecards users 175, p.106—not all hypertext-based work can be effected solely within the hypertext. VKB also noted the challenge of expressing publishable information spaces 149, p.113. The relationship of hypertexts with other media forms is not new. Moulthorp noted: 'This paper begins by asking why hypertext researchers publish their work in print and compose their hypertexts from previously printed sources 118.

Bernstein's two books on Tinderbox 26, 28 explore his design ideas and the origins of the program. An explicit link to earlier SH experiments is that VIKI cited as a key influence 26, p.165. It is also clear that this essentially SH tool—at least within its map view—draws as much on the literary/creative side of hypertext as it does upon pure computer science. Happily, the only SH tool currently available to the general public thus represents both expressions (evolutions) of SH.

Similar to later use of VKB, Buchanan et al.'s 'Garnet' 39 used SH as a means to explore digital libraries. (2004). Solis and collaborators merged the concept of SH with that of wikis 93 to make 'ShyWiki' 164–167. Here, discrete wiki articles could be arranged on an SH map. A difficulty experienced was with new users understanding the templating system used to generate structured content 163. This seems to echo earlier SH experiences with AQUANET where it was the design and choice of structures to be used in the SH rather than the overall SH experience that impeded use. (2008–12).

'Emberlight' 111 was an experiment using a Tinderbox file as the back-end to a web display offering both an outline and an (SH) map (2010). Given advances in what more web browsers can now do, this approach remains interesting. In context, Tinderbox's poster concept [28, Ch.11] reverses this by using embedded web browser rendering in map objects obviating the need for building new app-native views (2023). In part, this approach draws on the ideas of van Dam's DASH 181, 189 (2019–to date).

Reprising his earlier influential 'Patterns of Hypertext' 18, Bernstein's 'Can we talk about Spatial Hypertext?' 25 offered an enriched syntax for the representational talkback of SH, moving beyond simple styled boxes of text (2011).

Kolb, writing from a perspective of philosophy, saw value in SH as it related to scholarly writing 88 and in 'Other Spaces for Spatial Hypertext' 89 he drew a connection between useful SH as evolved both via VIKI/VKB and Storyspace/Tinderbox. The case for non-link-based meaning in hypertext having been made by former, SH co-existing with (visible) links seems less odd than when AQUANET was trying to escape the 'tyranny of the link'.

Atzenbeck and colleagues at iisys (Hof, DE) have continued SH work in the context of recommender systems and AI. A three-tier Component-based Open Hypermedia base (CB-OHS) base 8 (2017) underlies their 'Mother' 6 system. Pertinently, the system involves three parsers. A spatial parser observes the arrangement of nodes in the display plane, a visual parser looks at the visual styling similarities of nodes and a temporal parser (Schedel 140) watches the temporal sequence of user interaction with nodes. The latter reflects a more dynamic view of the temporal axis compared to that seen in the likes of VKB. Examples of their 'Mother' system are seen in active decision making 5, story brokering 137, video selection 131, end-user development 136.

Aside from Eastgate's and iisys's work, SH is little in evidence today, the more so outside the research lab. We might ask "Where are all the spatial hypertexts?" (q.v. 20)—why such a dearth of material?

The Twine authoring tool 61, though Web in lineage, does make use of a spatial layout to assist in the narrative construction. Tapestries[^21] 168 (in late beta) is interesting as, whilst not overtly hypertextual in construction, is essentially an SH as the salience of a tapestry comes from the appearance and juxtaposition of its elements.

[^21]: Its team draws on long experience of e-publishing, stretching back to e-book CDs.

9.1 Spacial, or 'Spacialised', Hypertext?

Whilst Spatial Hypertext's heyday may appear to be in the past, SH as a means of sense- and knowledge-making remains relevant today, although, as 'Seven Hypertexts' notes, 'Spatial Hypertext has become dormant' 3, Sect. 3.5. I would suggest the issue faced is twofold: a lack of SH tools and a lack of clarity as to how and where to build SH practice into existing work practice.

Scope. It can be seen from its genesis that SH's strength is in exploration of a problem space and elucidation of its potential structure and breadth. But, having made an SH, what can we then do with just the SH result? Is the result meaningful to others, or do we have a beautiful 'mind palace' of use only to its maker(s)? Thus, a challenge for proponents of SH is to make clear what problems it addresses better than other processes, and in what context to use it. SH is a software-mediated experience, and certainly, without SH tools, the analytically assistive power of SH is hidden from a wider audience.

Tools. As noted in Section 9, programs like Tinderbox still offer an SH experience within a wider feature set, but most SH systems described here either are no longer usable or are restricted to a research setting. An early beta of VKB survives, but Tinderbox and Storyspace (now on a common codebase) are the only two publicly available, current, SH tools—albeit for macOS only.

In considering a role for SH, I think Kidd's 1994 observation on knowledge work triage still holds true:

'My explanation is that once informed (ie, given form) by some written material, these workers have no particular need to retain a copy of the informing source. However, if a piece of written material has not yet informed them, then they cannot sensibly tile it anyway because its subsequent use or role in their world is still undetermined, I conclude that the valuable marks are on the knowledge worker rather than on the paper or on the electronic file. . . ' ('Marks in The Water' 84, via 156)

This chimes with this author's experience of using SH tools for over two decades: it is the practice of using an SH environment which is as valuable as using a particular SH tool. But it is having such SH tools that enables and unlocks that experience. Working via SH assists with the contextualisation of new knowledge.

Spatial Hypertext deserves not to whither away. It is to be hoped research on SH will continue.

I would like to acknowledge the insights of Cathy Marshall and Frank Shipman in preparation of this paper, not least for their perspective as 'creators' of SH. My thanks to Mark Bernstein for help in re-contextualising some early SH facts, and to Silas Hooper. The paper's peer reviewers also gave helpful input and supplied some missing pieces.

A note on referencing and links. Some sources, as originally cited, can be hard to find as early contemporary sources here fall in a period before extensive digital curation of niche print material. This at a time when libraries are sending infrequently used assets (e.g. print journals) to landfill. Unobtainable sources are so noted in the bibliography. Where possible, an actionable URL has been given for resources, including for BibTeX source types not normally linked under default ACM styling via 'acmart'.

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